Received Social Support and Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms in New Zealand and Philippine Emergency Responders
Published Online:April 2021https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2021.40.2.153
Abstract
Introduction: Emergency responders are at risk of post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). This study investigates the relationship between the different components of received social support (RSS) and PTSS in these occupations.
Method: This cross-sectional study involved emergency responders from New Zealand and the Philippines (n=223). Participants answered an online questionnaire measuring social support and PTSS.
Results: High amount of total received support was significantly associated with lower levels of PTSS. Analyses of RSS components revealed that co-worker, emotional, and tangible support exhibited salutary main effects on PTSS. Furthermore, high amounts of RSS from supervisors were found to be associated with low levels of PTSS only among participants who reported low trauma exposure.
Discussion: Findings were congruent with the main effects model of RSS. Results also underscored the importance of investigating varied manifestations of social support as they may differentially influence the strength of effects of receiving social support by emergency responders.
REFERENCES
- (2001). Ambulance personnel and critical incidents: Impact of accident and emergency work on mental health and emotional well-being. British Journal of Psychiatry, 178, 76–81. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.178.1.76 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012). Social support moderates posttraumatic stress and general distress after disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25, 721–727. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21758 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.68.5.748 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016). DSM-IV post-traumatic stress disorder among World Trade Center responders 11–13 years after the disaster of 11 September 2001 (9/11). Psychological Medicine, 46(4), 771–783. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715002184 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016). Social and occupational factors associated with psychological distress and disorder among disaster responders: A systematic review. BMC Psychology, 4(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-016-0120-9 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016). DSM-5 PTSD and post-traumatic stress spectrum in Italian emergency personnel: Correlations with work and social adjustment. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 12, 375–381. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S97171 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015). Social support, stress, and suicidal ideation in professional firefighters. American Journal of Health Behavior, 39(2), 191–196. Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1976). Social support as a moderator of life stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38(5), 300–314. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-197609000-00003 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004). Social relationships and health. American Psychologist, 59(8), 676–684. Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1997). Social ties and susceptibility to the common cold. JAMA, 277(24), 1940–1944. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1997.03540480040036 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1985). Measuring the functional components of social support. In Sarason I. G., & Sarason B. R. (Eds.), Social support: Theory, research and application (pp. 73–94). The Hague, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff. Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1991). Psychological stress and susceptibility to the common cold. The New England Journal of Medicine, 325(9), 606–612. Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310–357. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310 Crossref, Google Scholar
Common Cold Project . (n.d.). Major Stressful Life Events (Questionnaire). Retrieved October 25, 2016, from http://www.cmu.edu/common-cold-project/measures-by-study/psychological-and-social-constructs/stress-measures/major-stressful-life-events-questionnaire.html Google Scholar- (2011). The longitudinal course of PTSD among disaster workers deployed to the World Trade Center following the attacks of September 11th. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(5), 506–514. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20672 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1990). Type of social support and specific stress: Toward a theory of optimal matching. In Sarason I. G., & Pierce G. R. (Eds.), Social support: An interactional view (pp. 319–366). John Wiley. Google Scholar
- (2014). The development of a three part model of psychological resilience. Stress and Health, 30(5), 416–424. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2625 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016). Correlates of VA mental health treatment utilization among OEF/OIF/OND veterans: Resilience, stigma, social support, personality, and beliefs about treatment. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 8(3), 310–318. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000075 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012). The impact of social support on the relationship between trauma history and ptsd symptoms in motor vehicle accident victims. International Journal of Stress Management, 19(1), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026488 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000). Social support measurement and intervention: A guide for health and social scientists. Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
- (2007). How many imputations are really needed? Some practical clarifications of multiple imputation theory. Prevention Science, 8, 206–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-007-0070-9 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004). Psychometric properties of the life events checklist. Assessment, 11(4), 330–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191104269954 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018). Psychological outcomes in disaster responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effect of social support. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 9(3), 344–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-018-0184-7 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2020). Social adjustment in New Zealand and Philippine emergency responders: A test of main and moderating effects of received social support. Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 24(2), 77–88. Retrieved from http://trauma.massey.ac.nz/issues/2020-2/AJDTS_24_2_Guilaran.pdf Google Scholar
- (2006). Sources of social support and burnout: A meta-analytic test of the conservation of resources model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(5), 1134–1145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.1134 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2020). Resilience and attitudes toward help-seeking as correlates of psychological well-being among a sample of New Zealand Defence Force personnel. Military Psychology, 32(4), 329–340. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2020.1754148 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015). Evaluating factors and interventions that influence help-seeking and mental health service utilization among suicidal individuals: A review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 28–39. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.05.006 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013). ModGraph-I: A programme to compute cell means for the graphical display of moderation analyses: The internet version, Version 3.0. Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand. Retrieved September 26, 2018, from https://psychology.victoria.ac.nz/modgraph/ Google Scholar
- (2020). Social support, interpersonal, and community dynamics following disasters caused by natural hazards. Current Opinion in Psychology, 32, 105–109. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.07.026 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2020). A scoping review of postdisaster social support investigations conducted after disasters that struck the Australia and Oceania continent. Disasters, 44(2), 336–366. https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12390 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1995). Mobilization and deterioration of social support following natural disasters. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4(3), 94–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772341 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000). Help-seeking comfort and receiving social support: The role of ethnicity and context of need. American Cournal of Community Psychology, 28(4), 545–581. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005192616058 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009). Distinctions that matter: Received social support, perceived social support, and social embeddedness after disasters. In Neria Y., , Galea S., , & Norris F. H. (Eds.), Mental health and disasters (pp. 175–200). New York: Cambridge University Press. Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2003). Social network as a moderator in the relation between trauma exposure and trauma reaction: A survey among UN soldiers and relief workers. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 44(5), 415–423. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-9450.2003.00362.x Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001). Social ties and mental health. Journal of Urban Health, 78(3), 458–467. https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/78.3.458 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1978). Co-worker and leader support as moderators of stress-strain relationships in work situations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(5), 629–634. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.63.5.629 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2019). Social support during emergency work and subsequent serious psychological distress: A cross-sectional study among emergency workers who responded to the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 61(6). Retrieved from https://journals.lww.com/joem/Fulltext/2019/06000/Social_Support_During_Emergency_Work_and.14.aspx Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008). Attachment styles, traumatic events, and PTSD: A cross-sectional investigation of adult attachment and trauma. Attachment & Human Development, 10(1), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730701868597 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 52–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.52 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009). Optimism, social support, and coping strategies as factors contributing to posttraumatic growth: A meta-analysis. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 14(5), 364–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325020902724271 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010). The relation of perceived and received social support to mental health among first responders: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(3), 403–417. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20371 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1985). Concomitants of social support: Social skills, physical attractiveness, and gender. Journal of Personal and Social Psychology, 49(2), 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.49.2.469 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1981). The health-related functions of social support. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(4), 381–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00846149 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000). Berlin Social Support Scales (BSSS). https://doi.org/10.13072/midss.490 Google Scholar
- (2019). Perceptions of belongingness and social support attenuate PTSD symptom severity among firefighters: A multistudy investigation. Psychological Services, 16(4), 543–555. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000240 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011). Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52(2), 145–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510395592 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009). Understanding the links between social support and physical health: A life-span perspective with emphasis on the separability of perceived and received support. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(3), 236–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01122.x Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013). The Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5). Retrieved April 21, 2016, from http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/te-measures/life_events_checklist.asp Google Scholar
- (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) - Extended Criterion A [Measurement Instrument]. Retrieved May 19, 2016, from http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp Google Scholar
- (1986). Perceived support, received support, and adjustment to stressful life events. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 27(1), 78–89. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136504 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015). A meta-analysis of risk factors for combat-related PTSD among military personnel and veterans. PLOS ONE, 10(3), e0120270. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120270 Crossref, Google Scholar
