Skip to main content
Search
Search
Quick Search anywhere
Advanced Search
Skip main navigation

Self-Awareness and Constructive Functioning: Revisiting “the Human Dilemma”

Published Online:June 2005https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.4.475.40307

Abstract

Self-awareness—the capacity to focus attention on oneself, and thus to self-evaluate—has a bad reputation in social-clinical psychology because of its ties to negative affect, depression, suicide, and dysfunction. Using Rollo May's (1967) analysis of “the human dilemma,” we outline self-awareness's beneficial contributions to psychological functioning. Without self-awareness, people could not take the perspectives of others, exercise self-control, produce creative accomplishments, or experience pride and high self-esteem. Research suggests that the positive and negative facets of self-awareness are reconciled when people have reasonable self-standards and when they are optimistic about meeting their standards.

References

  • Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context. Boulder, CO: Westview. Google Scholar
  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Google Scholar
  • Batson, C. D. (1991). The altruism question. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
  • Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Escaping the self. New York: Basic Books. Google Scholar
  • Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Academic Press. Google Scholar
  • Brockner , J., & Hulton, J. B. (1978). How to reverse the vicious cycle of low self-esteem: The importance of attentional focus. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 564–578. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Carver, C. S. (2003). Self-awareness. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 179–196). New York: Guilford. Google Scholar
  • Carver , C. S., Blaney, P. H., & Scheier, M. F. (1979). Focus of attention, chronic expectancy, and responses to a feared stimulus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1186–1195. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Carver , C. S., & Ganellen, R. J. (1983). Depression and components of self-punitiveness: High standards, self-criticism, and overgeneralization. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 92, 330–337. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation. New York: Springer. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper-Row. Google Scholar
  • Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity. New York: Harper-Collins. Google Scholar
  • Csikszentmihalyi , M., & Figurski, T. J. (1982). Self-awareness and aversive experience in everyday life. Journal of Personality, 50, 15–28. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Dana , E. R., Lalwani, N., & Duval, T. S. (1997). Objective self-awareness and focus of attention following awareness of self-standard discrepancies: Changing self or changing standards of correctness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 16, 359–380. Link, Google Scholar
  • Denham, S. A. (1998). Emotional development in young children. New York: Guilford. Google Scholar
  • Diener , E. (1979). Deindividuation, self-awareness, and disinhibition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1160–1171. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Duval , T. S., Duval, V. H., & Mulilis, J. P. (1992). Effects of self-focus, discrepancy between self and standard, and outcome expectancy favorability on the tendency to match self to standard or to withdraw. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 340–348. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Duval , T. S., & Lalwani, N. (1999). Objective self-awareness and causal attributions for self-standard discrepancies: Changing self or changing standards of correctness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1220–1229. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Duval, T. S., & Silvia, P. J. (2001). Self-awareness and causal attribution: A dual systems theory. Boston: Kluwer Academic. Google Scholar
  • Duval , T. S., & Silvia, P. J. (2002). Self-awareness, probability of improvement, and the self-serving bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 49–61. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Duval, T. S., & Wicklund, R. A. (1972). A theory of objective self awareness. New York: Academic Press. Google Scholar
  • Duval , T. S., & Wicklund, R. A. (1973). Effects of objective self-awareness on attributions of causality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 9, 17–31. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. New York: Stuart. Google Scholar
  • Feist , G. J. (1998). A meta-analysis of personality on scientific and artistic creativity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 290–309. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Fejfar , M. C., & Hoyle, R. H. (2000). Effect of private self-awareness on negative affect and self-referent attribution: A quantitative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 132–142. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Goffman, E. (1967). Alienation from interaction. In Interaction ritual (pp. 113–136). Garden City, NY: Anchor. Google Scholar
  • Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (1994). The role and development of self-regulation in the writing process. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 203–228). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
  • Greenberg , J., & Musham, C. (1981). Avoiding and seeking self-focused attention. Journal of Research in Personality, 15, 191–200. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Hass , R. G. (1984). Perspective-taking and self-awareness: Drawing an E on your forehead. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 788–798. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Heckhausen, H. (1987). Emotional components of action: Their ontogeny as reflected in achievement behavior. In D. Görlitz & J. F. Wohlwill (Eds.), Curiosity, imagination, and play (pp. 326–348). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
  • Hull , J. G. (1981). A self-awareness model of the causes and consequences of alcohol consumption. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 586–600. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Ickes , W. J., Wicklund, R. A., & Ferris, C. B. (1973). Objective self awareness and self esteem. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 9, 202–219. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Ingram , R. E. (1990). Self-focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 156–176. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Joireman , J. A., Parrott, L., III., & Hammersla, J. (2002). Empathy and the self-absorption paradox: Support for the distinction between self-rumination and self-reflection. Self and Identity, 1, 53–65. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Kagan, J. (1981). The second year: The emergence of self-awareness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard. Google Scholar
  • Lewis, M. (1990). Self-knowledge and social development in early life. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality (pp. 277–300). New York: Guilford. Google Scholar
  • Maddux, J. E., & Gosselin, J. T. (2003). Self-efficacy. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 218–238). New York: Guilford. Google Scholar
  • Martindale, C. (1999). Biological bases of creativity. In R. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 137–152). New York: Cambridge. Google Scholar
  • May, R. (1967). Psychology and the human dilemma. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Google Scholar
  • Mor , N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 638–662. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Nix , G., Watson, C., Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (1995). Reducing depressive affect through external focus of attention. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14, 36–52. Link, Google Scholar
  • Nolen-Hoeksema , S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569–585. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Plant , R. W., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and the effects of self-consciousness, self-awareness, and ego-involvement: An investigation of internally controlling styles. Journal of Personality, 53, 435–449. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Postmes , T., & Spears, R. (1998). Deindividuation and antinormative behavior: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 238–259. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Prentice-Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (1989). Deindividuation and the self-regulation of behavior. In P. B. Paulus (Ed.), The psychology of group influence (2nd ed., pp. 87–109). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
  • Pryor , J. B., Gibbons, F. X., Wicklund, R. A., Fazio, R. H., & Hood, R. (1977). Self-focused attention and self-report validity. Journal of Personality, 45, 513–527. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Pyszczynski , T., & Greenberg, J. (1987). Self-regulatory perseveration and the depressive self-focusing style: A self-awareness theory of reactive depression. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 122–138. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Pyszczynski, T., Hamilton, J. C., Greenberg, J., & Becker, S. E. (1991). Self-awareness and psychological dysfunction. In C. R. Snyder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of social and clinical psychology (pp. 138–157). New York: Pergamon. Google Scholar
  • Rathunde, K. (1999). Systems approach. In M. Runco & S. Pritzker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of creativity (pp. 605–609). New York: Academic Press. Google Scholar
  • Runco, M. A. (1991). Divergent thinking. Westport, CT: Greenwood. Google Scholar
  • Russ, S. W. (1993). Affect and creativity. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
  • Schlenker, B. R. (2003). Self-presentation. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 492–518). New York: Guilford. Google Scholar
  • Shibutani, T. (1961). Society and personality: An interactionist approach to social psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Google Scholar
  • Silvia , P. J. (2002a). Self-awareness and emotional intensity. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 195–216. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Silvia , P. J. (2002b). Self-awareness and the regulation of emotional intensity. Self and Identity, 1, 3–10. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Silvia, P. J. (in press). Exploring the psychology of interest. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
  • Silvia , P. J., & Duval, T. S. (2001a). Predicting the interpersonal targets of self-serving attributions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 333–340. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Silvia , P. J., & Duval, T. S. (2001b). Objective self-awareness theory: Recent progress and enduring problems. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 230–241. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Silvia, P. J., & Duval, T. S. (2004). Self-awareness, self-motives, and self-motivation. In R. A. Wright, J. Greenberg, & S. S. Brehm (Eds.), Motivation and emotion in social contexts. (pp. 57–75). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
  • Silvia , P. J., & Gendolla, G. H. E. (2001). On introspection and self-perception: Does self-focused attention enable accurate self-knowledge? Review of General Psychology, 5, 241–269. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Smith , T. W., & Greenberg, J. (1981). Depression and self-focused attention. Motivation and Emotion, 5, 323–331. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Snyder , C. R. (2000). The past and possible futures of hope. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 11–28. Link, Google Scholar
  • Spurr , J. M., & Stopa, L. (2002). Self-focused attention in social phobia and social anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 947–975. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Steenbarger , B. N., & Aderman, D. (1979). Objective self-awareness as a nonaversive state: Effect of anticipating discrepancy reduction. Journal of Personality, 47, 330–339. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Stephenson , B., & Wicklund, R. A. (1983). Self-directed attention and taking the other's perspective. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 58–77. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Stephenson , B., & Wicklund, R. A. (1984). The contagion of self-focus within a dyad. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 163–168. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Szymanski , K., & Harkins, S. G. (1992). Self-evaluation and creativity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 259–265. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Taylor , S. E., & Fiske, S. T. (1978). Salience, attention, and attribution: Top of the head phenomena. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 249–288. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Taylor , S. E., & Mettee, D. R. (1971). When similarity breeds contempt. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 20, 75–81. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Trapnell , P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 284–304. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Wegner , D. M., & Schaefer, D. (1978). The concentration of responsibility: An objective self-awareness analysis of group size effects in helping situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 147–155. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Weiner , B. (1985). An attributional model of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92, 548–573. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Wells, A., & Matthews, G. (1994). Attention and emotion: A clinical perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
  • Wicklund, R. A. (1990). Zero-variable theories and the psychology of the explainer. New York: Springer. Google Scholar
  • Wicklund , R. A. (1999). Multiple perspectives in person perception and theorizing. Theory and Psychology, 9, 667–678. Crossref, Google Scholar
  • Woody , S. R. (1996). Effects of focus of attention on anxiety levels and social performance of individuals with social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 61–69. Crossref, Google Scholar
Previous article
Next article